Indigenous people and culture of Sri Lanka

Introduction

Sri Lanka is one of the most multicultural countries in South Asia. It is a small island located in the middle of the Indian Ocean near the southern tip of South India. Since Sri Lanka is separated from India by the narrowed Straits of Sri Lanka as a separate island, the cultures that have emerged over time in India have influenced Eelam in modern times. At the same time, its natural boundaries have helped Sri Lanka's history and culture develop in a unique way. The location of the island, its physical resources, natural pearls, gems, elephants, ivory, conch, sculpture and perfumes such as elem, caraway, cloves etc. have attracted many people to the island. As a result of these, it can be said that many national cultures helped the culture of Eelam or mixed with Eelam culture. Due to these, the island has been known by many names since ancient times. Notable among them are Ilangapuri, Thampanna, (Thampapanni Thapraben, Thabron), Ratnaduweepam, Eelam, Lanka, Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka. Among them, the names Tampanna, Sri Lanka and Eelam are seen as the names that have received much attention from historians.

Some of the names that initially referred to a specific region or place in Sri Lanka seem to have changed over time to refer to the whole of Sri Lanka. Among them, the names known as Tampanna in Pali and Eelam in Tamil are particularly noteworthy. Pali literature mentions "Thampanna" in northwestern Eelam as Vijayan's landing place in the 6th century BC. The name itself eventually became a name for the whole of Sri Lanka. It has been called Tambapanni, Thabraben, Thabron according to the language difference of the countries. A scholar named Parkar says that this name is derived from the name of the river "Tampanna" flowing in the south-east of Sri Lanka (Parkar 1909), Professor Paranavidhana says that a river flowing through the town of Adichanallur in Tirunelveli district in Tamil Nadu is called Tamaraparani, so the name given to northwest Sri Lanka by the people who came to pearl from the region is Tampanna in Pali language. (Paranavithana 1961:24). But there is no inscriptional or literary evidence of a river being called Tamaraparani in Tamil Nadu before the 12th century AD. But there is reliable evidence of migration of people from Tamil Nadu and spread of culture to Sri Lanka since prehistoric times.

In particular, Tamil Nadu's Paleolithic cultural symbols that gave birth to the Sri Lankan civilization, Adichanallur, where the Tamaraparani river flows, and North-West Eelam are found to be very similar to one region. Thus, there is room to assume that the river in Adichanallur in Tamil Nadu was called "Thamarabarani" because of the ancient name "Thampanna" in Pali or Thamarabarani in Tamil.

"Eelam" is another term for Eelam is a prominent place name. AD in Tamil Nadu In the 1st century Sangha book Pattinapalai, the lines "Eezathunavum Kalakathu Aakamu" tell the story of the export of food from Sri Lanka to Tamil Nadu. From this, it seems that the tradition of Eelam being called by the name "Eelam" was well established in Tamil Nadu at the time when this book was written. A Brahmic inscription at Tiruparangunram in Tamil Nadu dating to the period tells of a kapadukhi set up by an Eelam family head for a Jain monk who lived there. The names "Eelah" and "Eel" in Brahmi inscriptions found at Poonagari, roughly contemporary with this, and the Brahmic inscription at Anuradhapuram with "Eelaparatha". " (Eelam Bharatavar) is also found. These may indicate the country name Eelam. Eelam Bhootantevanar is seen as one of the poets who sang Sangam songs. The epithet "Eelam" in it refers to Eelam. In contemporary Eelam Brahmic inscriptions the names Bhutan, Bhutha and its feminine form Bhuthi appear. The name Eelam has been widely used to refer to Sri Lanka in Sri Lanka following the Sangam period and in the inscriptions and literature of the Pallavar, Chola and Pandyan regimes in Tamil Nadu.

An inscription dating back to the 7th century AD found in Anuradhapuram tells of a donation of 30 Eelam coins to a temple there. From this it seems that the ancient source of Eelam money is in Eelam. Following this, there are reports of Eekhakasu and Eekhakarungasu in the Chola inscriptions of the 10th and 11th centuries. Inscriptions published during his reign state that Parantaka Chola I issued coins named Eekhakasu and Eekhakarungasu in commemoration of his conquest of Eelam. It is said that these may refer to coins issued in metals like gold, copper etc. A Pallavar inscription in Tamil Nadu mentions the word "Eezaputchi" which refers to the tax levied on the producers of "s" and thus the people involved in the production of s are also called Ezhavars.

There are references in some land grant inscriptions that "Tengum Panayum Ezhavar Elapparetaraum". A village called Kranchi in Poonagari, now North Eelam, was known as "Ezhavoor" in the leaf prints there.

can be known from Scholars who have studied the name "Eelam" in recent times have suggested that "Eelam" is a Tamil word and that the word seems to be related to palm plantations (Padmanathan 2011: 5). There are different opinions among scholars as to when palm production was introduced in Eelam. He suggests that there may have been a tradition of producing palm trees (above: 5).If this statement is correct, then the name "Eelam" may be considered to have changed from a name referring to the palm-rich North Eelam or a part of North Eelam to the whole country over time.

Pali Literature and Native People

Sri Lanka has the distinction of being a country with a continuous historical literary tradition in South Asia. The tradition of keeping history was also introduced in Sri Lanka with the spread of Buddhism in the 3rd century BC. The Buddhist priests who kept the news related to Buddhism as oral messages from the Buddhist temples also kept the political, economic and cultural historical events of the kings who supported the religion. Based on the historical events thus maintained, AD. Deepavamvam in the 4th century, Mahavamsa in the 6th century AD followed by Sulavamsa etc. Pali literature emerged. These Pali literatures mainly focus on highlighting the history of Buddhism, especially the origin, spread and development of Theravada Buddhism. However, those literatures are seen as the primary book that helps to know the early history of Eelam. Among them, the Mahavamsa is taken as the main source in narrating the history of Sri Lanka's indigenous people and cultural formation. In this book, the history of 1000 years from the arrival of Vijayan to the time of King Mahasena is told continuously. This book on the indigenous people of the country states that Sri Lanka's human history and civilization began with 700 companions from northern India led by Vijaya in the late 6th century BC (Mahavamsa vi-vii.51-55). Although the people who lived here before their arrival are mentioned in this book and other Pali texts as Dikars and Nagars, historians have interpreted them as non-human Amanujars (Mendis 1946:8, Paranavitana 1961181-82). Through this, a profound idea has been created that the Sinhalese people descended from Vijayan are the original people of Sri Lanka and that the human history and civilizational history of Sri Lanka begins with them.

These Pali books contain historical information related to Tamils, Tamil kings and their religions. However, they are not referred to as Sri Lankan people but as foreigners who came from Akkarai (from Tamil Nadu) as traders, invaders and invaders. Pali literature says that Vijayan and his 700 companions immigrated to Sri Lanka from North India, the ancestors of the Sinhalese people. The same Pali literature does not seek to prove that the ancestors of Tamils came from Tamilnadu during Vijayan's time. Thus, the Pali literary concepts have been influencing the Sri Lankan historical texts till today. As evidence for this, in the museum book "Physical Anthropology of Sri Lanka" published in the 1960s, "The Vedars are the indigenous people of Sri Lanka, while the Sinhalese are the descendants of prehistoric settlers from northern India. Tamils are immigrants from South India. It may be mentioned here that the Muslims are the descendants of the emigrants from Arabia, the Barangays are the later descendants of the Portuguese and Hollanders who lived here.

Archeology and Indigenous Peoples

In many countries of the world, the beliefs that prevailed among the people regarding the history of those countries before history was written using archaeological evidence. Oral messages, legends and the historical literature based on them were seen as the history of those countries. Europeans first developed the tradition of writing history using archaeological evidence along with historical literature. This led to a re-examination of the historical beliefs of many countries. In some countries there is also a tradition of looking at history with an emphasis on traditional historical beliefs as opposed to new historical facts established by reliable archaeological sources. In Sri Lanka, the tradition of writing history using archaeological evidence along with historical literature emerged from the British rule in the 19th century. When British administrators and military officers visited Rasathalis like ancient Anuradhapuram, Polanaru for various purposes, there were destroyed buildings, places of worship and abandoned ponds. Archeology is the discovery of embankments, canals, inscriptions etc. which led to the study. It was during this period that a westerner named Kaikar translated Pali literature into English. By this the places mentioned in the Pali literature. The main objective of British period archeology was to discover and investigate historical events.

The Pali literature was written with the aim of giving prominence to Theravada Buddhism, the kings who contributed to its development, and the people who followed it. As a result, the history of other religions and the history of the people except Theravada Buddhism are found in these books. Considering these, Kaikar, who translated the Mahavamsa book into English, hints that the problem is not what is said in this book, but what is left unsaid. In this case, the archeological studies carried out during the British period using the history told in the Pali literature as sources have greatly helped to justify the history told by the Pali literature. Through this, the British archeological studies were largely responsible for the emergence of the divisive opinion that the Sinhalese people belong to the Aryan language family and the Tamils belong to the Dravidian language family. Yet a westerner like Packer pointed to the inscriptions found at Periapuliangulam in Vavuniya as evidence that Tamils have been greeting in Eelam since 2000 years ago. He also identified Pelivavi mentioned in the Mahavamsa as Vaunikulam in Valli as one of the achievements of King Ella and mentioned that the Lakhammi coins found in Mullaitivi may have been issued by King Ella. His contemporary, Louis, a scholar, discovered during the Vanni regional archeological survey, Hindu and Buddhist temple buildings, sculptural ruins, inscriptions, jewels of Vanni princes, habitations, historic ponds and dams. Mentioning the destruction of canals and canals, he mentioned that there are more villages in Vanni with pure Tamil names than in Tamil Nadu. These ideas that arose during the British rule indicate that Sri Lankan Tamils have an ancient history. However, these ideas have not been given much attention in the later studies regarding the history of Eelam.

After the independence of Sri Lanka, the archeological studies carried out here mostly aimed to find out about the development of writing, language, religion, art and culture that took place after the arrival of Vijayan. A research group comprising Tamil and Sinhalese historical scholars, which started working at Perathan University from the 1960s, played an important role in carrying these forward. The trend of archaeological research in Sri Lanka since the 1970s. The field of study was also remarkably progressive. The main reasons for this are the introduction of archeology courses in some universities of South Sri Lanka, the incorporation of modern scientific and technological facilities in archaeological studies, the Department of Archaeology, and the participation of archeologists from countries such as Britain, Germany, and America in the archaeological excavations carried out by the universities of South Sri Lanka. Due to these, the facts about the people and culture of the period before the arrival of Vijaya (pre-historic period) began to come to light to some extent. For example, in the 1970s, Kalanidhi Sirantheraliyagala found evidence related to the Neolithic people found in Iranimadu area in Kilinochchi district in Northern Sri Lanka, and contemporary evidence related to the Paleolithic culture people found in Kandarodai in Jaffna and Pomparipu in Puttala district by the American University of Pennsylvania archaeologist Kalanidhi Vimalabeke. During 1980-1984, the excavations conducted at Matottam under the leadership of Professor Joncaswell, the UNESCO Cultural Triangle Program launched in 1981, and the excavations related to Paleolithic monuments at Ipankaduwa by the Institute of Archeology of Kelani University during 1988-1991. During 1990-1991 British archaeologist Prof. Allchin, Kalanithi Cunningham conducted excavations at Anuradhapuram. These findings clearly outline the need for re-examination of traditional historical beliefs based on Pali literature regarding the indigenous people of Sri Lanka.

The activities of the Department of History, University of Jaffna, which was started in 1974, provided an opportunity to advance archaeological research in the Tamil regions. As the first head of the department, Prof. Indripala took constructive initiatives to develop the Department of Archeology at the University of Jaffna as well as at some of the Southern Sri Lankan universities. With the introduction of archeology subjects in the history curriculum, a situation arose to carry out archaeological research in Tamil Pradesh. In starting and implementing them, Kalanithi P. Iragupathi has an important place. The Paleolithic monument he identified at Anaikottai was excavated in 1980 by professors of history under the leadership of Prof. Indripala. Through this, the first Paleolithic human remains of Jaffna dating back to 2200 years ago were discovered.

Following this discovery, Kalanidhi Raghupathy's subsequent survey of the Jaffna Peninsula identified more than 40 ancient settlement centers and identified Sundaroda as their chief settlement (Ragupathy 1987). Subsequently, many ancient residential centers have been discovered in the archaeological research carried out by the author of this article in Poonagari (1993, 2004), Chatti 2004-2005), Puliankulam 2014), Kappachi (2015), Kattukarai Kulam 2016, Nagapaduan Tirumangalai. In 2011, the Department of Archeology and the Department of History, University of Jaffna jointly carried out an excavation at Kandarodai. This excavation further confirmed the views of Wimala Begley in the 1970s regarding the indigenous population of Jaffna. It can be said that these archeological studies have shed new light on the study of the indigenous people of Northern Sri Lanka, which was covered in Pali literature before the emergence of the Jaffna Kingdom, and in the historical studies based on them.

Contemporary Archeology and Indigenous Peoples

Recent studies on the indigenous peoples of Sri Lanka confirm that human history and civilization began before the Vijayan Age. Prof. Senaka Bandaranaike, who claims that cultural differences are not the cause of the ethnic identities of the people of Sri Lanka, says that cultural differences should be investigated from the beginning of the history of human civilization in Sri Lanka (Senaka Bandaranaike 1985:1-23). Scholars like Prof. Chattamangala Karunaratna and Rajsomade point to inscriptions as evidence that the 'Yak' and Naga people referred to in Pali literature are not amanusas but indigenous ethnic groups that lived in Sri Lanka. Recently, in the article "Valliyakkanum Vallipuranatharum" written by P. Iragupathi, he had highlighted the fact that the director worship (Yak worship) which has been a tradition in Tamil worship for more than 2500 years has become a temple of Vallipuradatha in recent times and also outlined the reason why the cultural identities of Sri Lankan Tamils should start from the culture of the native people. (Iragupathi 2006:1-23). Initially, the name "Naga" which was common to the multi-ethnic people and kings of Sri Lanka gradually disappeared from the Sinhalese people, but the name continues to be used in the Tamil community. For example, personal names such as Naga, Nagi, Nagadevan, Nagarasan, Nagammal, Nagavannan, Naganathan, Nagamuthu, etc., place names such as Nagakoil, Nagamuna, Nagapaduan, Nagadevanthurai, Nagamalai, Nagathalvu etc. in circulation in their habitats, and Naga worship temples found in every village are proof of this. A look back at the history of these names reveals that this name has a history of 2500 years. The symbols used as a communication language among the Paleolithic people who lived in Sri Lanka more than 3000 years ago have been found in the pottery used by them. But symbols do not disappear with culture, as evidenced by their continued use in later Tamil society as cattle tags and as symbols used by laundry workers to the present day (Pushparatnam 1999:62-7). These evidences underline that the history of Sri Lankan Tamils should be seen from the beginning of human history in this country.

Stone Age People

Human history is said to have started in India 600,000 years ago. Evidence of people living in Sri Lanka during this period has not yet been found. Traces of life discovered during the excavations of Pulmottai beach sand deposits in eastern Sri Lanka suggest that some of the Neolithic people may have lived as early as 250,000 years ago and more specifically 500,000 years ago.

Archaeologists are showing off. These speculations need to be confirmed by future studies. However, after 125,000 years, there are evidences of Middle Palacolithic people living in Sri Lanka. This is evidenced by the stone tools found during the archaeological investigations carried out in places like Munthal and Ratnapura in southern Sri Lanka and Iranamadu Formation in northern Sri Lanka (Deramivagala 1992:686, 2004:4). It is believed that contemporary people may have lived in northern Sri Lanka as far as Vetralikeni to the north of Iranimadu, Mankulam to the south and Mannar to the southwest. Based on the large quartz choppers and flakes found during these excavations, it seems that these people may have been nomadic and engaged in hunting (Deraniyagala 2004:5), during the excavations carried out in Ratnapura district, some parts of human bones were found along with these tools. It is thought that these may belong to Homo sapiens (Deraniyagala 2004:4). However, no other evidence related to the lifestyle and culture of the people of this period has been found. As a result, it is not possible to say the connections that may have existed between these people and the people and culture that lived in Sri Lanka later.

Mesolithic People

The Meolithic people in Sri Lanka were followed by the Meolithic people with some civilizational progress in BC. There is widespread evidence of life from 37,000. These evidences have been found in approximately 75 places starting from the Hartan high plains, the lowlands of Mannar and Wilpattu, and the central rain forest of Sapragamuval. In northern Sri Lanka, evidences of this culture have been found at Matottam, Poonagari, Iranimadu, Puliankulam and Katukarai Kulam. Among them, ancient cultural remains and human bone nests were found in caves near Balangoda, so this culture is called Balangoda culture and the people who lived here are called Balangoda man. Anthropologists say that the later descendants of these people are the Vedars living in Sri Lanka today.

The evidence found during the excavations carried out in the cave and plain areas where the Neolithic people lived in Sri Lanka shows that the origin and disappearance of this culture differed from place to place (Deraniyagala 1992: 695-701 2004:6). There is room to assume that these people must have migrated to and settled in those places or these people must have migrated from outside Sri Lanka at different times and settled in these places.

Stone tools played an important role in the daily life of Meolithic people. These were mostly angular and crescent shaped. Among them, most of the steel weapons are made from stones like quartz and chert. Very rarely they were made from stones like jasper (Deraniyagala 1992:266-70, 688-94, 2004:8). There is also evidence that these people used tools such as points and needles made of bone and antler (Seniveratne 1085:149.Deraniyagala 1992:278-81, 2004-9), one of the distinctive features of this culture is the very small metal weapons used by them. These were usually less than 4 cm long and very finely crafted. This feature indicates that Mesolithic tools were designed with more technical and artistic aspects in mind than Paleolithic tools. The habitations of these people were very rare and small. They were located on approximately 50 square meters where a few core families could live (Deraniyagala 1992:351, 2004:8). These people also buried their dead in their habitations. During the research carried out in Bagian (Fa-hein Cave) and Ranavila Cave (Ranaclla Cave), traces of burial of only a few bones of the dead man and covering them with red clay have been found. This tradition is considered to reflect the religious beliefs of the people of the time (Deraniyagala 1992: 465-7, 696). These people moved from place to place as nomads according to seasonal changes and collected a variety of foods. From the studies carried out in the cave of Bellan-bandi-palasu, these people had a variety of cereals, tubers, fruits, wild animals. It has been revealed that seafood like rubber was used. From this evidence it is further revealed that these people had some knowledge of the practice of food storage and the use of fire. Salt fossils have been found in Beli Cave, estimated to be 30,000 years old. From this it appears that there was a network of communication between the hill country and the coasts at that time

There is not much evidence available to know the art works and artistic sensibility of the Neolithic people. A variety of cave paintings (Cave Art) are found in caves where evidence of this culture has been found. These are believed to be the artworks of Vedars who lived in the historical period. Chiran Theraliyagala suggests that some of the paintings may belong to prehistoric Mesolithic people (1992:465, 2004:10). Beds of shell, seashells, conch and oysters have also been found in the Batadomba Cave (31,000-11,500) near Kuruwithi. These show the artistic sensibility of the people of that time and their connection with the coast. Recently, a researcher named Prematilaka has studied the grain seeds found in the Hatan plains (Palynological Evidence) and it has been revealed that grains called barley and oats have been cultivated by these people since 17000 BC (Deraniyagala 2004:10).

Excavations at Bombaripi and Anuradhapura have found evidence of Mesolithic culture on top of Meolithic culture. Based on these, the Meolithic people who lived here when the culture spread, rather than the Meolithic people migrated to Sri Lanka, this idea needs to be further investigated because the evidence of the Meolithic culture as its initial settlement is found in many places where there is no evidence of Meolithic people living here.

Anthropologists suggest that the Neolithic people who lived in Sri Lanka and South India belonged to the same race. Archaeologists point out that there are close similarities between the stone tools used by the Neolithic people in Sri Lanka and those used in South India. In particular, the two-sided unit Meolithic tools used in Sri Lanka are so similar to the Terik culture near the Pampan coast in Tamil Nadu that they are considered to be the same region (Kennedy 1990:34), and linguists point to a strange similarity between Elam and South Indian Neolithic peoples in terms of language. Based on these associations, it is said that the Neolithic people who lived in Sri Lanka migrated from South India, especially the Teri sandhills in Tamil Nadu. Indrabala believes that since Northern Sri Lanka and especially Jaffna Peninsula is the starting point of Tamil Nadu, these people who migrated from Tamil Nadu must have settled in Jaffna Peninsula first. Kalanidhi Iragupathi during the 1980s in collaboration with the Department of Archeology discovered some Mesolithic tools during an archaeological survey in Pulmottai and the Bhunagari region north of Manthi (Iragupathi 1982-1983:4-6), the author of this article during the period 1993-2004 in the coastal villages of Kalmunittha Manalai and Cutkadu in this region. of the archaeological survey carried out Indeed, during the excavation of a sample pit at Kalmunai, we were able to find some tools and their parts belonging to the type of quats and sates, which were widely used in the Meolithic culture (Pushparatnam 1993), and while looking at these, the Meolithic culture spread from Tamil Nadu. It can be said that the cultured people also spread to other parts of the country through Northern Sri Lanka including the Jaffna Peninsula.

Paleolithic culture in Eelam

and for food as nomads. The history of civilization begins when the people who wandered for residence got rid of that way of life and settled permanently in one place and started engaging in permanent economic production. Archeology reveals that this change has occurred in many countries of the world within less than 5000 years. This is why it is said that 95% of human history is nomadic and the remaining 5% is civilized. This development of civilization cannot be said to have occurred simultaneously in all countries and everywhere in the world. It has emerged in different time periods from country to country and place to place. This is the location of the places where civilization originated. Physical resources. It can be seen that it was due to the physical resources that were favorable for making connections with other places and countries. In the case of Sri Lanka, archeological evidence confirms that this civilization took place around 3000 BC.

Many scholars who have studied the period and the reasons for the emergence of Sri Lankan civilization while archeological studies have not developed much have attributed it to

They used stories of native settlements in literature as their primary source. These literatures say that the human history and the history of civilization began with the people who came from North India under the leadership of Vijayan and settled around 2500 years ago. Scholars based on Pali literature suggest that permanent settlements, pond irrigation agriculture, urbanization, and state formation in Sri Lanka occurred with Vijayan's arrival. And scholars who took the story of this migration as the Aryan migration from North India explained that the Sinhalese people were the later descendants of Amma people. The story of Vijaya told in Pali literature can be taken as evidence of trade and cultural relations between North India and Sri Lanka in ancient times. However, no reliable archaeological evidence has yet been found to accept the story as a story of North Indian settlement in Sri Lanka. On the contrary, reliable archeological evidence has been found in various areas of Sri Lanka for the migration and settlement of Peleolithic people from southern India on a large scale several centuries before the alleged arrival of Vijaya. Archeology and anthropology scholars who compared this culture with South Indian Paleolithic culture call the people who spread this culture to Sri Lanka as Dravidians. It is on the basis of these that Professor Senaka Bandaranayak says that the history of civilization before the "Vijayan Age" has appeared in Sri Lanka. Thus, the study of the early civilization of Sri Lanka is seen as a study of the Paleolithic culture.

The term Paleolithic, used since 1849, derives from the primitive use of large stones to erect monuments to the dead. Evidence has been found of stone monuments in various shapes and sizes in many countries of the world in ancient times. Although there are differences between countries in their designs, the common similarities are that the monuments were erected in the belief that the dead would be reborn. However, in the Dravidian-speaking states of South India and Sri Lanka, this culture is viewed as a unique feature of these regions, as there is a common similarity in various aspects of this culture, especially in the red-colored pottery, talismans, iron tools, flint figures, and religious beliefs used by these people. The use of large stones to build the monuments gave rise to the name Paleolithic, but in places where large stones are not found, especially in countries such as South India and Sri Lanka, symbols such as black and red ware, use of iron are found in places such as Urm, Extended burial. There is a tradition that places where stone monuments are found are also known as Paleolithic stone monuments. Nowadays, instead of being called the Stone Age culture, it is called the Early Iron Age culture and the Black and Red Ware Culture based on the technology of iron that is highlighted in the culture and the red pottery.

Today, in the study of the early culture of South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asian countries, the Paleolithic culture has attracted the attention of many archaeologists. This review is not limited to the study of monuments erected to the dead. It is also a study of the diverse cultural dimensions of the people who lived in that era. In Sri Lanka and in some areas of South India, stable settlements, irrigated agriculture, use of iron, use of black and red wares, herds, and development of small industries appeared with this culture, which was the precursor to the beginning of the historical period. Historic Period). Also known as the Formation Period. Ancient Civilization of South India, Origin of Kingdoms, Urbanization. Paleolithic culture is seen as the starting point for studies of social formation (Rajan 1984). Thus, it is appropriate to look at the appearance of these cultural features and cultural changes in Sri Lanka in the context of the emergence and development of the South Indian Paleolithic culture.

Spread of Paleolithic Culture

The spread of the Paleolithic culture in Sri Lanka's cultural history can be said to be the beginning of a new phase or a turning point. It was not only the introduction of a new civilization but also the migration of new people. Paleolithic culture. The migration of the cultured people also occurred in the places where the Neolithic people lived earlier and in other places, the emergence of new settlements and the increase in the population of the country. People who wandered for food as nomads in the Neolithic culture now settled permanently in one place and engaged in food production. People who used stone tools developed new technologies in the Paleolithic culture using metals such as iron and copper. Sudarsan Senivaratna, one of the foremost archaeologists of Eelam, who has extensively studied the Paleolithic culture in comparison with the South Indian Paleolithic culture, has the following to say about the revolutionary changes that accompanied the culture:

“Initiation of use of iron with technology, introduction of stone for making pottery, use of air to cultivate land, emergence of rice cultivation, canal, pond irrigation system. The beginning of small scale technology, the control and utilization of the environment for people to live better than before, the emergence of village settlements, the emergence of networked exchange centers, the creation of conditions for population growth, the emergence of small land states, the introduction of horses, the emergence of new symbols, the creation of new pottery (black-red color). )" means

This statement accurately indicates that Sri Lanka's civilized history began with the Paleolithic culture. In Sri Lanka, evidences of the emergence and development of the Mesolithic culture have been found in some centers where the Mesolithic culture prevailed before the Neolithic period and in many other areas. From these it is seen that Mesolithic culture was followed by Mesolithic culture. This is Anuradhapuram. During the archaeological excavations carried out at Pomparipu and Manthi, it has been confirmed that the Mesolithic symbols have been found on top of the Mesolithic culture. Thus, when the Mesolithic culture spread in these places, the Mesolithic people who lived here earlier must have followed this culture. Or the Paleolithic culture may have absorbed this culture. However, since evidences of the Paleolithic culture have been found in many places where there was no Paleolithic culture or earlier Paleolithic culture, it can be said that human history began only after the people of the Paleolithic culture settled in those places. This aspect confirms that the Paleolithic culture of Sri Lanka, although seen in a South Indian context, developed largely through South-Eastern contact. Because Neolithic Culture or Chalcolithic Culture is seen as a continuation of Neolithic culture in various regions of South India including North Tamil. This feature is found in a few places in South Tamil Nadu but in most places the Mesolithic culture is a continuation of the Mesolithic culture. In some places it is possible to see the beginning of Paleolithic culture and the history of civilization. Thus, it is highly appropriate to see the Perunga Age culture that emerged in Sri Lanka in relation to the South East.

Who were the people who spread the Paleolithic culture to South India? Where did this culture spread? Different opinions are found among scholars on such questions. Many have suggested that the people who propagated this culture were Dravidian speakers, while others said that they were Indo-Aryan speakers. However, in the early period of this culture, it is not possible to say with certainty which language these people belong to because there are no writings that help to identify the language of the people who followed the culture. But scholars who have studied the bone nests found in the remains of this culture say that they are a hybrid people (Thapar and Rahman 1996:274). Evidence of the existence of this culture in Peninsular India dating back to 3200 BC has been found in various localities. Based on the period and the unique features found in the design of the monuments, it is said that this culture first spread in North-West Deccan and then spread from there to Karnataka in South Deccan. From here it is said to have moved eastward to Andhra Pradesh along the banks of the Krishna River and from there spread to Tamil Nadu via the Godavari and Ponnaiyar. Surnadakam is said to have played an important role in the spread of the Paleolithic culture to Tamil Nadu when looking at the similarities between the Paleolithic monuments found in Bengaluru and Kolar districts in South Karnataka and those found in Dharmapuri and North Arkadu districts in North Tamil Nadu. This culture spread from Karnataka to North Tamil Nadu and spread from the fertile areas there to the fertile areas of Tamil Nadu rivers such as Kaveri, Palaru, Ponnaiyar and Tamiraparani. Archaeologists point out that Um Burials and Stone Circles, which are widely found in these places, were generally practiced in areas suitable for rice cultivation (Seneviratne 1984:26-27). Thus, it is said that this culture spread to the North-West Deccan, South-South (Karnataka) Kerala, North-South from there to Thamaraparaniyat and then spread to Sri Lanka from there. Prof. Indrabala said "There is no doubt that the Paleolithic culture (Early Iron Age culture) came to Sri Lanka from South Tamilnadu. From Agathiyar Hills, this culture reached the south-eastern bank of Tamil Nadu along the banks of the rivers Vaiparu, Vaigai, Chittaru, Thamaraparani. After reaching Vagadevanallur and Adichanallur, the Vaigai river plains, the culture continued towards Sri Lanka. Spreading is cursed ".Enak says (Indripala 2006: 93). This is further confirmed by scholars who have compared various aspects of the Paleolithic culture found at Agichanallur in the southeast and opposite it in northwestern Sri Lanka, and have said that they are similar enough to consider them as a regional culture (BegleyVimala 1967: 49-96, Sitrampalam 1990).

The beginning period of this Paleolithic culture in Surnataka state in South India is estimated as 1200 BC. The chronology of the evidence obtained from the excavations at Adichanallur confirms that its origin in the Southeast may be as early as 1000 BC. The chronology of the evidence found during the investigations at Anuradhapuram confirms that the culture may have spread to Sri Lanka around the same period. This chronology may also cause changes in the previous chronology system related to the Paleolithic culture that emerged in other places of Sri Lanka. Professor Rajan, one of the foremost archaeologists of India who has studied in detail the Paleolithic pottery methods discovered in the Southeast in recent times in relation to other sources, has predicted the period of the Paleolithic culture of Tamil Nadu on the basis of the gradual spread from the north to the south of the tradition of building monuments using stones, but the black-red pottery in the Southeast was earlier than this tradition. He says that the use of iron also appeared with the weaving methods. If this view is accepted, the period of the Paleolithic culture in Sri Lanka can be advanced further. Evidence confirms that Paleolithic migration and culture from the Southeast first occurred in the coastal regions of Sri Lanka and gradually spread into the interior of the country. The main reason for this is the close sea connection between Sri Lanka and the Southeast, but another important reason is the favorable conditions for setting up new settlements with minimal technology. Although these reasons varied from place to place, they were generally coastal areas that could be easily destroyed using small-scale technology, shallow seas where seafood could be obtained, and sandy areas where water could be extracted using normal technology. It can be said that the reason for this was natural harbors which were favorable for maritime communication. Thus the Paleolithic settlements and culture on the coasts gradually moved to the interior of the country. Spread to other places. For this, the clay soil suitable for cultivation found in the interior of the country, water-logged nature, and the dense rain forests of the central region are suitable geographical features for setting up residences. The main reasons that attracted these people were the climate, rivers that were favorable for establishing contact with the coast, inland trade links, iron and copper deposits. Sudarsan Senivaratna on the design of the dark-red pottery found at Pomparippu and Kollankantta on the northwest coast of Sri Lanka and the black and red pottery found inland, especially at Anuradhapuram and Galsonkanatta. (Seneviratne 1985:65) suggests that this culture spread to all parts of Northern Sri Lanka from north-western Sri Lanka, pointing out similarities. In it, it can be seen that the places where minerals were found, especially the places where iron and copper were found or where they could be easily obtained from other places, played an important role in determining the permanent settlements of the Paleolithic people (Seneviratne 1995:115).